Construction Temporary Works 15 min read

Temporary Works Design: Formwork, Falsework and Scaffolding

Last updated: July 2026

A professional engineering guide to the structural design of temporary works including formwork lateral pressure analysis, falsework stability to BS 5975, and scaffold design to BS EN 12811 and TG20.

1. Introduction to Temporary Works Design

Temporary works are the engineered systems that support construction until permanent works become self-supporting. They include formwork (moulds for wet concrete), falsework (temporary support structures for arches, bridges, and slabs), and scaffolding (access platforms and working structures). Unlike permanent structures, temporary works are erected, loaded, and dismantled within weeks or months, yet their failure can be catastrophic — multiple-fatality collapses of temporary works have occurred worldwide when design methodology was inadequate.

The design of temporary works requires consideration of unique load cases: wet concrete exerts lateral fluid pressure that diminishes as the concrete sets; construction plant imposes dynamic loads; wind loads on exposed falsework towers can govern stability; and differential foundation settlement beneath shore legs can redistribute forces unpredictably. Each of these demands explicit calculation, not rule-of-thumb allowances.

This guide addresses the structural engineering of all three categories — formwork, falsework, and scaffolding — with reference to international standards. For formwork safety, inspection procedures, and stripping times, see the dedicated Formwork Design and Safety Guide. The Civil Engineering Handbook and Standards Reference provide supplementary design data.

2. Regulatory Framework

Temporary works design is governed by a matrix of international, national, and industry-specific standards. In the United Kingdom, BS 5975:2019 Code of Practice for Temporary Works Procedures and the Permissible Stress Design of Falsework is the definitive standard, requiring a designated Temporary Works Coordinator (TWC) for all projects and establishing a management framework that includes design brief, design check, inspection, and handover.

The American Concrete Institute's ACI 347 — Guide to Formwork for Concrete governs formwork pressure calculations in North America. OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart Q formulates mandatory safety requirements for formwork including design by a qualified person, minimum live loads, and inspection competence. In Europe, BS EN 12811-1 specifies performance requirements for access and working scaffolds and is supplemented by the UK's National Annex and the TG20 design guide published by the National Access and Scaffolding Confederation (NASC).

In India, IS 14680 and IS 2750 cover code of practice for scaffolding and formwork respectively. Regardless of jurisdiction, the fundamental design philosophy remains consistent: temporary works must sustain all foreseeable loads with adequate factors of safety, must be stiff enough to maintain dimensional tolerances, and must be stable against overturning and sliding throughout every construction stage.

Callout — Design Supervision: BS 5975 requires that all falsework designs be independently checked by a second engineer not involved in the original design. This 'four-eyes' principle applies to all temporary works classified as 'complex' — typically those exceeding 5 m in height, supporting precast segments, or spanning over highways or railways.

The Standards Reference provides a full comparison of temporary works provisions across ACI, BS, EN, IS, and OSHA codes.

3. Loads on Temporary Works

Temporary works must resist the following load categories, combined per the governing standard's load combination rules:

Dead loads (G_k): Self-weight of the temporary structure (steel scaffold tubes, couplers, boards, form panels) plus the permanent works it supports (wet concrete density 24 kN/m³, reinforcement 0.5–2 kN/m³, steel decking, precast elements).

Live loads (Q_k): Construction personnel, stored materials, plant, and equipment. ACI 347 specifies a minimum of 2.4 kN/m² on formwork decks; BS 5975 requires 0.75 kN/m² on working platforms and 1.5 kN/m² on storage platforms. Concrete pumping surcharge adds 2–5 kN/m² locally.

Wind loads (W_k): Critical for tall falsework towers and free-standing scaffolds. BS 5975 requires wind loads to BS EN 1991-1-4 with a minimum of 0.5 kN/m² on the projected area. For scaffolds with debris netting or sheeting, wind area increases significantly and can govern leg design.

Construction loads: Dynamic effects from concrete placement (pumping, skip discharging, or crane bucket dumping) are taken as 1.1–1.3 × static load. Horizontal loads from concrete placement include: 3 kN/m width for pumped concrete, 2% of vertical load as a notional horizontal force for erection tolerances (BS 5975), and wind on exposed wet concrete surfaces.

Horizontal loads: Earth pressure against embedded falsework foundations, water pressure in excavations, and lateral concrete pressure (see Section 4). The notional horizontal force for frame imperfections is taken as 0.5% of the vertical load in each braced bay per BS EN 12811.

Callout — Load Combinations (BS 5975): Serviceability: G_k + Q_k. Ultimate: 1.4 G_k + 1.6 Q_k (or 1.2 G_k + 1.2 Q_k + 1.2 W_k when wind governs). No superposition of wind and construction live load is required — the more critical combination governs.

4. Formwork Design: Lateral Pressure of Concrete

Lateral concrete pressure is the governing load for wall and column formwork. Fresh concrete behaves as a Bingham fluid — it exerts hydrostatic pressure initially, but as hydration progresses, internal friction develops and the lateral pressure reduces below the full hydrostatic value. The key variables are rate of placement R (m/h), concrete temperature T (°C), slump, admixture chemistry, and form geometry.

ACI 347 provides the most widely used pressure equations. The maximum lateral pressure for walls is:

p_max = C_w C_c [7.2 + 785R / (T + 17.8)] (R ≤ 2.1 m/h)

For placement rates above 2.1 m/h, the equation changes to account for the greater fluid depth:

p_max = C_w C_c [7.2 + 1154/(T + 17.8) + 244R/(T + 17.8)] (R > 2.1 m/h)

Where C_w is the unit weight coefficient (1.0 for normal weight concrete, w/γ_w for other densities), C_c is the chemistry coefficient (1.0 for Type I/II cement without retarders, 1.2 for Type III high-early cement, 1.4 for retarded concrete), R is the vertical rate of rise in m/h, and T is concrete temperature in °C. The maximum computed pressure is capped at 150 C_w kPa.

The CIRIA C660 (UK) method offers an alternative formulation used widely in British practice, accounting for pore water pressure dissipation and the arching effect in narrow wall sections. CIRIA C660 pressure is generally lower than ACI 347 for typical placement rates but requires more input parameters including wall thickness, pour height, and concrete rheology.

Parameter	ACI 347	CIRIA C660	Units
Applicable range	R ≤ 4.3 m/h (columns), R ≤ 2.1 m/h (walls)	R ≤ 10 m/h, H ≤ 10 m	—
Key input variables	R, T, C_w, C_c	R, T, H, D, slump, cement type	—
Pressure cap	150 C_w kPa	wh (hydrostatic)	kPa
Slump limit	Full hydrostatic if > 100 mm	Included as D factor	—
Chemistry/admixture	C_c factor (1.0–1.4)	K factor (cement type)	—

The pressure distribution profile is triangular from the top of the pour to a depth d_e = p_max / (w × γ), below which pressure is constant at p_max. This profile is used directly for waler, tie, and sheathing design. The Engineering Formula Library provides automated pressure distribution computation.

5. Formwork Design: Wall Forms and Column Forms

Wall formwork is designed as a series of structural components: sheathing (plywood) spanning between vertical studs, studs spanning between horizontal walers, and walers supported by form ties anchored through the wall. The load path is: concrete pressure → plywood → studs → walers → ties. Each component must be checked for bending stress, shear stress, and deflection.

The tie layout (horizontal and vertical spacing) governs the panel size. For a given tie capacity T_all and design pressure p_max, the maximum tributary area per tie is A_tie = T_all / p_max. Typical tie patterns range from 600×600 mm to 900×900 mm for 45 kN she-bolt ties. Tie load is calculated as the average pressure over the tributary area — in walls, this is the pressure at mid-height of the tie zone, not the peak pressure.

Column forms differ from wall forms in that the pressure is applied on all four sides, creating hoop tension or requiring through-column ties. Square or rectangular column forms use yokes (steel or timber clamping frames) at vertical spacing typically 300–600 mm, with the maximum pressure occurring at the base of the column. Column form design must account for the fact that the concrete head is typically the full column height — unless rate-of-placement calculations indicate otherwise — and therefore pressure often reaches full hydrostatic for tall columns poured rapidly.

Bending in plywood sheathing is analysed as a continuous beam over stud supports. For a 1 m wide strip with stud spacing L_s, the maximum bending moment M_max = p_max × L_s² / 10 (three-span continuous condition). Plywood section modulus and moment of inertia are calculated per unit width. Allowable bending stress for 18 mm HDO plywood is typically 12.4 MPa with E = 6500 MPa.

The Concrete Volume Calculator aids in estimating pour volumes for rate-of-placement determination. For detailed formwork pressure calculations, the Learn: Construction Management module covers formwork economics and system selection.

6. Formwork Design: Slab Forms and Beam Forms

Slab formwork supports vertical gravity loads — primarily the self-weight of wet concrete, reinforcement, and construction live loads — rather than the lateral pressures that govern wall and column forms. The design load per unit area is: w_total = (slab thickness × 24 kN/m³) + (reinforcement allowance 0.5–1.5 kN/m³) + (formwork self-weight 0.3–1.0 kN/m²) + (construction live load 2.4–4.8 kN/m²).

The load path for slab formwork: plywood deck → joists → stringers → shores → foundation. Joist spacing is typically 300–600 mm, stringer spacing 1.2–2.0 m, and shore spacing 1.2–2.4 m in both directions. Shoring towers (e.g., Cuplock, H-frame, or ringlock systems) are analysed as braced frames with pinned base connections, with effective length factors of 1.0 for the vertical leg buckling check.

Beam formwork combines vertical soffit loading (for the beam bottom) with lateral pressure (for the beam sides). Deep beams (beam depth > 600 mm) require lateral pressure design similar to wall forms for the side panels, while shallow beams are governed by vertical loads. Beam side panels must be tied across the top to resist bursting forces from the internal concrete pressure. The tie force is calculated as the average lateral pressure × projected side area, typically using 12–20 mm diameter threaded ties at 600–900 mm spacing.

The Quantity Takeoff Calculator can estimate total formwork contact area and material quantities, while the Concrete Quality Control on Site article covers pour sequencing and compaction best practices that affect formwork design assumptions.

7. Falsework Design Principles

Falsework is the temporary structure that supports the permanent works before they become self-supporting — typically used for bridge decks, arch ribs, large transfer beams, and cantilevered structures. Unlike formwork, falsework is a structural frame (usually steel or aluminium) analysed as a braced multi-storey frame with pinned or semi-rigid connections, supporting large concentrated loads from the permanent works above.

BS 5975 defines the design methodology for falsework in permissible stress format. The standard requires explicit consideration of: vertical loads (permanent works + falsework self-weight), horizontal loads (wind, notional 0.5% of vertical, concrete placement eccentricity), foundation bearing pressures, and differential settlement between adjacent legs. The design of each leg (typically a steel tube or aluminium prop) involves an Euler buckling check using the effective length determined by the bracing arrangement.

Falsework design to BS 5975 follows a seven-step procedure: (1) define the permanent works geometry and construction sequence; (2) identify load cases and apply partial factors; (3) determine member sizes and bracing layout; (4) check each member for combined axial + bending (beam-column) behaviour; (5) check foundation bearing and settlement; (6) check overall stability against overturning and sliding; (7) check serviceability (deflection at the permanent works soffit).

For falsework supporting curved or variable-depth bridge decks, differential settlement is the most critical design condition. A settlement of 10 mm at one support can induce bending moments in the permanent works significantly greater than the uniform settlement case. The falsework must be detailed with adjustable jacks at each leg (typically ±50 mm travel) to accommodate site levelling and settlement compensation. The Civil Engineering Handbook contains falsework design examples for common bridge types.

8. Falsework Stability and Bracing

Stability is the primary design concern for falsework. BS 5975 requires bracing in three orthogonal directions: vertical longitudinal bracing (in the plane of the longer dimension), vertical transverse bracing (at each bay or at every second bay), and horizontal bracing at each lift level. The bracing must be designed for a notional horizontal force of 0.5% of the total vertical load above that level, plus 100% of the wind load at that level, plus any construction-induced eccentricities.

The effective length of falsework legs is determined by the bracing spacing. A leg with bracing at 2.0 m vertical centres has an effective length L_e = 2.0 m (pinned ends) for buckling about the minor axis. For unbraced legs between the base and the first bracing level, the effective length factor may increase to 1.2–2.0 depending on base fixity. Proprietary falsework systems (Cuplock, Kwikstage, Ringlock) have manufacturer-certified load tables that eliminate the need for explicit buckling analysis when used within prescribed limits.

Overturning stability requires that the restoring moment (from vertical loads × lever arm to the outermost compression leg) exceeds the overturning moment (from wind and horizontal loads) by a factor of at least 1.5 (BS 5975, clause 6.4.1). For free-standing falsework towers without tie-backs to the permanent works, the width-to-height ratio should not exceed 1:3 for wind loads unless explicit overturning calculations are performed. Ballast or ground anchors may be required for tall slender falsework.

Callout — Falsework Collapse Prevention: Over 70% of falsework collapses occur during concrete placement, not under static load. The dynamic effect of pumped concrete, particularly when the delivery point is moved suddenly, induces lateral forces not captured in static analysis. BS 5975 recommends a minimum horizontal design force of 3 kN per bay or 2.5% of the vertical load — whichever is greater — during concrete pumping operations.

9. Scaffold Design to BS EN 12811 and TG20

Access scaffolding is designed to BS EN 12811-1:2003, which specifies performance requirements and general design rules for load-bearing scaffolds. The standard defines three load classes: Class 2 (1.5 kN/m² — inspection and light access), Class 3 (2.0 kN/m² — general building maintenance), and Class 4 (3.0 kN/m² — heavy-duty construction work). The TG20 guide (published by NASC) provides the UK's authoritative design tables and compliance rules for tube-and-fitting scaffolds.

BS EN 12811-1 requires scaffold design checks for: vertical load capacity of standards (legs), bearing capacity of base plates and sole boards, horizontal load resistance of ledgers and transoms, wind load resistance of the complete scaffold (particularly with sheeting/debris netting), and tie resistance to the supporting structure. Scaffold ties must be provided at a maximum spacing of 6.1 m horizontal and 4.0 m vertical for independent tied scaffolds.

Steel tube to BS EN 39 (48.3 mm OD × 3.2 mm or 4.0 mm wall thickness) is the primary scaffold component. The tube cross-sectional properties are: A = 454 mm² (3.2 mm wall) or 557 mm² (4.0 mm wall), I = 1.14 × 10⁵ mm⁴, Z = 4.73 × 10³ mm³, and r = 15.9 mm. The permissible axial load capacity depends on the effective length (typically the lift height of 2.0 m).

Tube Type	Wall Thickness	Effective Length L_e	Permissible Axial Load (kN)
BS EN 39 48.3 mm	3.2 mm	1.8 m	25.2
BS EN 39 48.3 mm	3.2 mm	2.0 m	22.8
BS EN 39 48.3 mm	4.0 mm	2.0 m	30.5
BS EN 39 48.3 mm	4.0 mm	2.5 m	25.8
Aluminium 48.3 mm	4.0 mm	2.0 m	14.2

TG20 compliance requires that scaffolds be designed using either the TG20:21 design tables (for standard configurations up to 60 m height) or the TG20:21 design software (for non-standard configurations). The design tables cover lifts up to 2.1 m, bay lengths 1.5–3.0 m, and load classes 2–4. For scaffolds with sheeting, fans, or bridges, a bespoke design is required. The TG20 e-guide is the definitive compliance tool in the UK market.

10. Foundation Requirements for Temporary Works

The foundation for temporary works is often the most overlooked element in design. Falsework and scaffold legs transfer large concentrated loads to the ground — a single Cuplock leg supporting a bridge soffit can apply 50–100 kN to a 150 mm × 150 mm base plate. The ground bearing pressure must be explicitly checked against the allowable bearing capacity of the foundation soil or structural slab.

BS 5975 requires that falsework foundations be designed to limit differential settlement to 5 mm between adjacent legs, or to a value that does not induce unacceptable stresses in the permanent works. This often requires a concrete blinding layer (minimum 150 mm thick) with mesh reinforcement beneath falsework towers, or steel spreader beams to distribute leg loads over a larger footprint.

For scaffolding on existing ground, sole boards (minimum 220 mm × 38 mm timber, or proprietary plastic base plates) must distribute the standard load to a bearing pressure not exceeding the ground capacity. On soft ground (bearing capacity < 50 kN/m²), a complete sub-base or timber mat is required. The TG20 guide specifies minimum sole board dimensions based on load class and ground type.

For temporary works erected on existing suspended slabs (e.g., formwork on a parking structure deck), the slab capacity must be verified by a structural engineer. The construction loading often exceeds the slab's design live load, requiring temporary propping from below. The Engineering Glossary provides definitions of bearing capacity and foundation-related terms, and the Standards Reference lists permissible ground bearing values for various soil types.

11. Worked Example

Example 1: Wall Form Lateral Pressure Calculation (ACI 347)

Given: Wall pour height H = 5.0 m. Rate of placement R = 2.5 m/h. Concrete temperature T = 20°C. Slump = 100 mm. Normal weight concrete w = 24 kN/m³. Type I cement, no retarders (C_w = 1.0, C_c = 1.0).

Step 1: Determine governing equation. R = 2.5 m/h > 2.1 m/h, therefore use the high-rate formula:

p_max = 1.0 × 1.0 × [7.2 + 1154/(20 + 17.8) + 244 × 2.5/(20 + 17.8)]
= 7.2 + 1154/37.8 + 610/37.8
= 7.2 + 30.53 + 16.14 = 53.9 kPa.

Step 2: Check maximum: 150 C_w = 150 kPa. 53.9 kPa < 150 kPa. OK.

Step 3: Equivalent fluid depth: d_e = p_max / w = 53.9 / 24 = 2.25 m. Pressure distribution: triangular from top to 2.25 m depth (0 to 53.9 kPa), constant 53.9 kPa below 2.25 m to base at 5.0 m.

Step 4: Tie design. Using 45 kN she-bolt ties at 600 × 600 mm pattern: tie load = 53.9 × 0.36 = 19.4 kN < 45 kN. Safety factor = 2.3. OK.

Conclusion: The calculated lateral pressure of 53.9 kPa governs all formwork component design. For the same pour at 10°C, pressure would increase to approximately 72 kPa — a critical consideration for winter concreting.

Example 2: Falsework Leg Load Check (BS 5975)

Given: Bridge soffit falsework using Cuplock towers. Tower plan = 2.4 m × 1.8 m (6 legs, each with a tributary area of 0.72 m²). Wet concrete depth = 1.2 m (28.8 kN/m²). Formwork + steel deck self-weight = 1.5 kN/m². Construction live load = 1.5 kN/m². Tower height = 8.0 m, braced at 2.0 m vertical centres.

Step 1: Total vertical load per leg (serviceability). Dead: 28.8 + 1.5 = 30.3 kN/m². Live: 1.5 kN/m². Total = 31.8 kN/m². Per leg: 31.8 × 0.72 = 22.9 kN.

Step 2: Ultimate load per leg (BS 5975): 1.4 × 22.9 = 32.1 kN (dead governs). With wind: 1.2 × (30.3 × 0.72) + 1.2 × (1.5 × 0.72) = 26.2 + 1.3 = 27.5 kN plus wind horizontal component. Dead + wind governs.

Step 3: Leg capacity check. Cuplock standard (48.3 mm × 3.2 mm tube). Effective length L_e = 2.0 m (braced at each lift). From manufacturer's load table: permissible axial load at 2.0 m effective length = 35.0 kN (includes safety factor). 32.1 kN < 35.0 kN. OK.

Conclusion: The Cuplock tower is adequate for the design loads at ultimate limit state. A minimum of two bays of bracing in each direction is required for the 8 m height. Differential settlement between legs must be limited to 5 mm per BS 5975.

Example 3: Scaffold Tube Capacity (BS EN 12811)

Given: Independent tied scaffold, Class 3 (2.0 kN/m²). Lift height = 2.0 m. Bay length = 2.4 m. Single standard (leg) tributary width = 1.2 m (paired standards). Tube: BS EN 39 48.3 mm OD × 4.0 mm WT (A = 557 mm², r = 15.9 mm). Steel grade S235 (f_y = 235 MPa).

Step 1: Load on standard. Tributary area = 2.4 × 1.2 = 2.88 m². Live load = 2.0 × 2.88 = 5.76 kN. Dead load (3 lifts of tubes + boards + fittings ≈ 0.35 kN/m²) = 0.35 × 2.88 × 3 lifts = 3.02 kN. Total service = 8.78 kN.

Step 2: Slenderness ratio. Effective length L_e = 2.0 m (pinned at both ends — ledger connections). λ = L_e / r = 2000 / 15.9 = 126. For S235 steel, the Perry-Robertson reduction factor χ = 0.37 (from BS EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2, buckling curve 'a').

Step 3: Buckling resistance. N_b,Rd = χ × A × f_y / γ_M1 = 0.37 × 557 × 235 / 1.1 = 0.37 × 557 × 213.6 = 44,020 N = 44.0 kN. Using BS EN 12811 permissible stress factors: allowable = 44.0 / 1.5 = 29.3 kN.

Step 4: Utilisation: 8.78 / 29.3 = 0.30 (30%). OK. The 4.0 mm tube is lightly loaded; a 3.2 mm tube would also suffice (capacity ≈ 22.8 kN, utilisation 38%).

Conclusion: The scaffold standard is adequate with a utilisation ratio of 30%. Tie spacing must be checked — for Class 3 scaffold, ties at ≤ 6.1 m horizontal and ≤ 4.0 m vertical are required per TG20. The Quantity Takeoff Calculator can estimate total tube lengths for procurement.

12. Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between formwork, falsework, and scaffolding?

Formwork is the mould into which concrete is placed (wall forms, column forms, slab forms). Falsework is the temporary structural frame that supports permanent works before they become self-supporting (bridge soffit supports, arch centering). Scaffolding provides access platforms for workers and materials. Formwork contains the concrete; falsework supports the structure; scaffolding supports the people.

What is the maximum allowable pressure for formwork per ACI 347?

ACI 347 caps the computed lateral pressure at 150 C_w kPa (approximately 3,130 psf), where C_w is the unit weight coefficient (1.0 for normal weight concrete). For lightweight concrete (16 kN/m³), C_w = 16/24 = 0.67, and the maximum is 100 kPa. This ensures that even with extremely high placement rates, the formwork design has a reasonable upper bound.

How does temperature affect falsework design?

Temperature affects both loads and material strength. Low concrete temperatures increase lateral pressure on formwork (by up to 40% at 10°C vs 30°C). High ambient temperatures reduce steel yield strength marginally but affect thermal expansion in long falsework spans — a 50 m bridge deck pouring at 30°C can expand 18 mm relative to a 10°C night pour, inducing significant forces in restraint points.

When is a Temporary Works Coordinator required?

BS 5975 requires a designated Temporary Works Coordinator (TWC) for all construction projects involving temporary works, regardless of size. The TWC is responsible for the management system: initiating design briefs, ensuring independent design checks, controlling permit-to-load procedures, and overseeing inspection and handover. The TWC must be a competent person with relevant experience and authority.

What is the TG20 compliance route for scaffold design?

TG20:21 offers two compliance routes: (1) the TG20:21 design tables for standard scaffolds up to 60 m height with bay lengths 1.5–3.0 m, lift heights up to 2.1 m, and load classes 2–4; (2) the TG20:21 e-guide design software for non-standard configurations including scaffolds with sheeting, fans, bridges, or bespoke loading conditions. Both routes provide a Declaration of Design that satisfies CDM regulations.

What causes differential settlement in falsework and how is it mitigated?

Differential settlement arises from variable ground conditions, consolidation of fill, groundwater changes, or adjacent construction activities. BS 5975 limits differential settlement to 5 mm between adjacent falsework legs. Mitigation includes: concrete blinding slabs (150 mm minimum with mesh), steel spreader beams, ground improvement (compaction or grouting), adjustable base jacks with ±50 mm travel, and continuous monitoring during concrete placement.

How is wind load calculated for temporary works?

Wind load on temporary works is calculated to BS EN 1991-1-4 (or ASCE 7 for US projects) using the projected area of the temporary structure plus any permanent works it supports. For scaffolds with debris netting, the wind area increases by 4–8 times the tube area. BS 5975 requires a minimum wind pressure of 0.5 kN/m². Wind tunnel testing is rarely required — simplified gust factors are used with a 5-year return period wind speed.

Can aluminum scaffolding be used interchangeably with steel?

No — aluminium and steel scaffold systems are not interchangeable without redesign. Aluminium (typically 6082-T6) has approximately one-third the elastic modulus of steel (69 GPa vs 210 GPa) and lower yield strength (250 MPa vs 235–355 MPa), resulting in different buckling behaviour and deflection characteristics. Aluminium tube capacity is typically 45–55% of an equivalent steel tube. All load capacity calculations must use material-specific properties per BS EN 12811.

References & Standards

BS 5975:2019. Code of Practice for Temporary Works Procedures and the Permissible Stress Design of Falsework. BSI, 2019.
ACI 347-04. Guide to Formwork for Concrete. American Concrete Institute, 2004 (reapproved 2014).
CIRIA C660. Early-Age Tensile Strength and the Lateral Pressure of Fresh Concrete. CIRIA, 2008.
BS EN 12811-1:2003. Temporary Works Equipment — Part 1: Scaffolds — Performance Requirements and General Design. BSI, 2003.
TG20:21. Guide to Good Practice for Scaffolding with Tube and Fittings. NASC, 2021.
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart Q. Concrete and Masonry Construction. U.S. Department of Labor.
IS 14680:2022. Code of Practice for Scaffolding — Safety Requirements. BIS, 2022.
IS 2750:2023. Code of Practice for Formwork. BIS, 2023.
Peurifoy, R.L. and Oberlender, G.D. Formwork for Concrete Structures. 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2020.
Civil Engineering Handbook — Temporary Works chapter.
Standards Reference — Temporary works provisions across codes.
Engineering Glossary — Temporary works terms and definitions.

Temporary Works Design: Formwork, Falsework and Scaffolding

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